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Link : Nationalism in India 

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Gender, Religion and Caste Notes

 

Class 10 Civics Chapter 4 Gender, Religion and Caste Notes
          Chapter = 4 
     Gender, Religion and                       Caste

 Gender division :-

 Gender division is a form of hierarchical social division seen everywhere, but rarely recognised in the study of politics. 

 It tends to be understood as natural and unchangeable. However, it is not based on biology but on social expectations and stereotypes.

 Sexual division of labour :-

 A system in which all work inside the home is either done by the women of the family, or organised by them through the domestic helpers. 

 Feminist :-

 A woman or a man who believes in equal rights and opportunities for women and man.

 Feminist movements :-

 Feminist movements aim at equal rights and opportunities for women and men. More radical women’s movements aimed at equality, both in personal and family life.

 Patriarchy :-

 A system of society in which men hold the power and women are largely excluded from it.

 Patriarchal society :- 

 A patriarchal society is essentially male dominated. The line of descent is traced through the father. Men are valued more in terms of work they do and the place they hold in society. This gives them more power than women.

Women face disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways: :-

 Literacy Rate :- The literacy rate among women is 54% as compared to the 76% among men.

 Jobs :- A women works an hour more than a man on an average, yet her work is neither valued paid.

 Wages :- Though there is an Equal Wages Act which states that women should be paid equal wages for equal work, women are still paid less for the same work. 

 Sex Ratio :- Most parents prefer boy children to girl children. Female infanticide and feticide are common in our country. This has resulted in unfavourable sex ratio.

 Social Evil :- Society in general and urban centres in particular, is not safe for women. Dowry harassment, physical abuse, sexual harassment are routine tales.

Women’s political representation :-

The percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha has touched 14.36 per cent of its total strength for the first time in 2019. 

Their share in the state assemblies is less than 5 per cent. 

 What can be done to improve the representation of women in legislature?

To improve the representation of women in legislature reservation of seats for women should be legally binding like panchayat. 

In panchayat 1/3 seats are reseved for women. 

some states where 50% seats are already reserved for women are Bihar, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh.

 Schemes and strategies have been taken up by the Govt of India for women empowerment :-

Act prohibiting the practice of sati.

The Hindu widow remarriage act. 

The married women’s property act.

Rajiv Gandhi National Creche scheme (for working women) 

Support to training and employment program for women. 

Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojna.

Kishori Shakti Yojna.

The Dowry prohibition Act. 

Protection of women from Domestic voilation Act, 2005.

The Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act. 

The Equal Renumeration Act.

 Religion, Communalism and Politics :-
Religion Differences in Politics :-

 Human rights activists allege that people from minority religious community suffer a lot whenever there is communal violence. 

 Gandhi ji Said :- Religion can never be, seperated From politics. Buit meant , moral values that Form all Religions. 

 Human Rights Groups Says :- Most of the victims of communal riots in our country are people from Religious Minorities.

 women Movements :- Family Laws of all Religious discriminate against women.

 Statement :- Religion can never be separated from politics :-

 According to Gandhi ji religion was not related to any particular religion like Hinduism or Islam but moral values that informs all religions. Politics must be guided by ethics drawn from religion.

 Family laws :-

 Those laws that deal with family related matters such as marriage, divorce, adoption etc.

 Communalism :-

 A belief in which the followers of a particular religion believe that their religion is superior over other religion

Communal Politics :-

 It is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community. 

 How Communal Politics is preferred?

Communalism involves thinking that the followers of a particular religion must belong to one community. 

Their fundamental interests are the same. 

Any difference that they may have is irrelevant or trivial for community life. 

It also follows that people who follow different religions cannot belong to the same social community. 

If the followers of different religions have some commonalities, these are superficial and immaterial. 

Their interests are bound to be different and involve a conflict. 

 Communalism can take various forms in politics :-

* religious prejudices,stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the superiority of own’s religion over other religion. 

* A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious community. 

* Political mobilisation on religious lines. This involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion together in the political arena. 

* Most ugly form of communalism is communal violence,riots and massacre.

Effect of Communalism on Politics :-

* Religion rather than ability becomes the criteria to choose candidates for election. 

* People prefer to caste votes in favour of candidates of their own religion. 

* Communalism can turn ugly and lead to violence, massacre and riots. 

* Sometimes, the voters polarise on the communal line and caste their votes accordingly.

 Measures to Combat Communalism in India :- 

 Communalism can be combated through the following methods :- 

* Law should ban parties using religion in politics. 

* Socio-economic backwardness of the country should be removed so that people are not used as vote banks.

* Political parties should rise above narrow gains and stop fanning communal passions. 

* Educational institutions should inculcate secular values among students. 

* The Election Commission should prepare a code of conduct for parties so that religion is not used in politics. 

* Mass media, TV, radio, NGOS and people themselves should launch an enlightenment movement so that public opinion is created against communal riots.

 Secular state :-

 A state that has no official religion and ensures equal status to all religious is called secular state. 

 Constitutional provisions that make Indian a secular state :-

Constitutional provisions that make India a secular state are :- 

* There is no official religion for the Indian state. Unlike the status of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and that of Islam in Pakistan. 

* The constitution provides freedom to all individuals and communities to profess, practice and propagate any religion, or not to follow any particular religion. 

* The constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion. 

* Our constitution allows the state to intervene in the matters of religions in order to ensure quality within religious communities.

Main features of secular state in India :-

* No official religions in India. 

* Freedom of religion in India means the freedom of religion to both individuals and coomunities. 

* The constitution prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religions.

 Urbanisation :-

 Shift of population from rural areas to urban areas.

 Occupational mobility :-

 Shift from one occupation to another, usually when a new generation takes up occupations other than those practiced by their ancestors.

 Caste hierarchy :-

 A ladder like formation in which all the caste groups are placed from the highest’ to the lowest’ castes.

 Reason behind change in caste and caste system in modern India :-

 Caste and caste system in modern India have undergone great changes became of :- 

* Economic development 

* Large scale urbanisation 

* Growth of Literacy and education

* Ocupational Mobility.

* Weakning of the position of landlords in the village.

 Reasons which have contributed to changes in caste and caste system in India :-

 The following reasons have contributed to changes in the caste system :-

* Efforts of political leaders and social reformers like Gandhi Ji and B. R. Ambedkar who advocated and worked to establish a society in which caste inequalities are absent. 

* Socio-economic reasons like urbanisation, growth of literacy and education. Occupational mobility, weakening of landlord’s position in the village have led to the breaking down of caste hierarchy. .

* The constitution of India prohibits any caste-based discrimination that lays down the foundations of policies to end the injustices of the caste system.

Positive impact of casteism with regard to political expression :-

With the economic development, large scale urbanisation growth of literacy and education, occupational mobility and the weakening of the position of landlords in the village, the old notions of caste hierarchy are breaking down. 

The constitution has prohibited any caste based discrimination and laid the foundation of policies to reverse the injustices of the caste system. 

 Negative impacts of Casteism with regard to political expression :-

When parties choose candidates in election, they keep in mind the caste imposition of the electorate and nominate candidates from different castes so as to get necessary support win elections. 

Political parties and candidates in elections make appeal to caste sentiments to muster support.

 Caste in politics :-

 As in the case of communalism, casteism is rooted in the belief that caste is the sole basis of social community. 

 Caste is one aspect of our experience but it is not the only relevant or the most important aspect. 

 Caste can take various form in politics :-

 The caste can take following forms in politics :-

Sometimes candidates are chosen on the basis of their caste. When political parties choose candidates, they keep in mind the caste composition of their voters.

In many places, voters on the basis of caste and fail to choose suitable candidates. 

When a government is formed after elections, political parties take care that different castes are represented in the government.

Political parties appeal to caste sentiments during election. 

To gain support political parties, raise caste based issues during elections. 

The castes considered inferior or low until now have been made conscious of their rights by the political parties.

 Other factors than the caste which play a decisive role at the time of the election :-

 Other than caste some factors which play a decisive role at the time of election :- 

Money 

Power 

Prestige 

Religion 

Policies of the political parties etc.

Politics influences the caste system and caste identities :-

Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating within it neighbouring castes or sub castes which were earlier excluded from it. 

Castes group are required to enter into a coalition with other castes. 

Newkind of castes group have come up in the political arena like backward and forward caste groups.

 How exclusive attention to caste can produce negative results in politics? 

Politics based on caste identity alone is not very healthy in a democracy. 

can divert attention from other pressing issues like poverty, development and corruption. 

Caste division leads to tensions,conflicts and even violence

Bhakti - sufi Traditions

Theme 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

Changes in Religious beliefs and devotional Texts

(C.Eighth to Eighteenth Century)

This chapter discusses how textual traditions have been used by historians to understand Bhakti-Sufi traditions.

The striking feature during the period between eighth to eighteenth centuries.

During this period, a large number of gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts appeared. This indicated the continued and extended worship of the major deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and the goddesses, visualized in a variety of forms.

The integration of cults

 Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that there were at least two processes at work.

 One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This was exemplified by the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse .They were meant to be accessible to women and Shudras who were excluded from Vedic learning.

 There was a second process at work that of the Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices these and other social categories.

 Through an example we can say that a local deity, whose image was and continues to be made of wood by local tribal specialists, was recognized as a form of Vishnu. These local deities were often incorporated within the puranic frame work by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities-sometimes they were equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu.




Tantric worship


 The forms of worship often associated with goddess were classified as Tantric.

 Tantric worship was wide spread in the subcontinent. It was open to women and men.

 Those who followed Tantric rejected the caste and class within the ritual context.

 Many of these ideas influenced Shaivism and the Buddhism.Conflicts that arose during the Bhakti movement

 There were conflicts between those who followed the Vedic tradition and those who practiced the Tantric way of worshipping deities.

 Those who valued Vedic tradition often condemned the practices that went beyond the performance of sacrifices and chanting of mantras.

 On the other hand those who engaged in Tantric practices ignored the authority of the Vedas.


Early Traditions of Bhakti


 The historians of religion classified Bhakti traditions into two broad categories: saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes).

 Saguna included traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi.

 Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of god.


The Alvars and Nayanars of TamilNadu

 During the sixth century, some of the Bhakti movements were led by the Alvars and the Nayanars.

 The literal meaning of the Alvars is those who are immersed in devotion to Vishnu.

 The meaning of the word Nayanars is those who were devotees of Shiva.

 They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
 During their travels the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities.

 Later big temples were built at those places and developed as pilgrimage centres.


Attitude towards caste


 According to some historians, the Alvars and the Nayanars started a movement of protest against the caste system and the Brahmanas and attempted to reform the system.

 The devotees came from the different social backgrounds such as artisans, cultivators and even from the caste that were considered “untouchable”




Compositions of the Alvars and Nayanars


 The compositions of the Alvars and the Nayanars are considered to be as important as the Vedas.

 For, instance, one of the anthologies of compositions of the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham was described as the Tamil Veda and the text was significant like the Vedas that were used by the Brahmanas.


Women devotees.

 One of the striking features of these traditions was the presence of women.

 For example, there was a saint-poet called Andal, a woman Alvar.

 Her compositions were sung and sung even today.

* Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva adopted the path of extreme asceticism to attain her goal.

 Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.

 These women renounced their social obligations, but did not become nuns.

 Their presence was a challenge to patriarchal norms.

Opposition to Buddhism and Jainism

 The saint –poets the Alvars and the Nayanars were opposed to Buddhism and Jainism.

 This hostility is well marked in their compositions particularly of the Nayanars.

 Historians say that his conflict was due to competition between members of different religious traditions for royal patronage.

Relation with the state

Patronage of Chola rulers

 The Chola rulers supported the bhakti traditions and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu.

 Some of the magnificent temples for Shiva such as temples in Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholpuram were constructed under their patronage.

 The Chola rulers built temples often to claim divine support and proclaim their own power and status and adorned those temples with stone and metal sculpture to represent the visions of the popular saints.

 They made the spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture.

 The Chola kings introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns under royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organize them into a text (Tevaram).

 According to Inscriptional evidence, the Chola king Parantaka I had constructed the metal images of Appar,Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple.

 These were carried in procession during the festivals of these saints.

The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka

 During the twelfth century, the Virashaiva movement was started by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68).

 He was a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king.

 His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga)

Lingayats and their belief

 Lingayats are an important community even today. They worship Shiva in the form of linga.

 They wear a small linga in a silver case over the left shoulder.

 Jangama or wandering monks are revered.

 Lingayats believe that after death, the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world.

 Therefore, they do not practice funerary rites such as cremation as prescribed in the

Dharmashastras.Instead; they ceremonially bury their dead body.




Challenge to the Caste system

 The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to some groups by Brahmanas.

 They also questioned the theory of rebirth.

 Their opposition to caste system won them number of followers who were marginalized within the

Brahmanical social order.

 The Lingayats also practiced certain approvals that were rejected by the Dharmashastras such as post- puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.

 Our knowledge about the Virashaiva tradition is came from vachanas (literally,sayings) composed in kannada by those who joined the movement.

Religious ferment in North India (Religious condition of north India)

 According to historians, in north India there was a period when several Rajput states emerged and in most of these states Brahmanas occupied important place by performing rituals.

 There was no attempt to question their position directly. At the same time there were other religious leaders who were out of the orthodox Brahmanical systems, and were gaining ground.

 These included the Naths,Jogis and Siddhas.Many of them came from artisanal groups such as weavers who were well organized.

 These religious leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas. However, they were unable to win the support of the ruling elites.

 Turkish conquest culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.

 The power of many Rajput rulers was thus undermined and also of the Brahmanas who were associated with those kingdoms.

 The coming of the Sufis was a significant part of these developments.

The coming of Turks and the Islamic tradition

 Muhammed bin qasim conquered Sind in 711 AD. Sind became a part of the caliph’s domain. During the thirteenth century the Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate.

 Sultanates were also formed in the Deccan and other parts of the subcontinent. Islam was recognized as the religion of several areas. This continued with the establishment of the Mughal Empire.

 Muslim rulers were to be guided by the Ulema, which were expected to ensure that they ruled according to the Sahri’a.

 The Zimmi means “protected” and is derived from the Arabic word zimma, protection. It was developed for peoples who followed revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, and lived under muslim rule.They paid a tax called jizya and received protection from muslims.In India this status was extended to Hindus as well.

 In general, rulers often adopted a flexible policy towards their subjects.

 For example, several rulers gave land endowments and granted tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious institutions. They also showed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim religious

The popular practice of Islam

The five pillars of faith in Islam.

Those who adopted Islam follow five “pillars”of faith.

 1.There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger (shahada)

 2.Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat)

 3.Giving alms (zakat)

 4.Fasting during the month of Ramzan(sawam)

 5.Performing the pilgrimage to mecca(hajj)

 The universal features of Islam declined due to the sectarian practices (Sunni,Shi’) and the influence of local customary practices.

 For example, Arab Muslim traders who settled Malabar Coast adopted Malayalam language and matriliny system.

 The best example of the blending of a universal faith and local traditions is mosques.

 The architectural features of mosques are universal (orientation towards Mecca and the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit).

 There are variations such as roofs and building materials.

The Growth of Sufism

Sufis were a group of religious minded people in Islam. They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Quran. They emphasized interpretation of Quran on the basis of personal experience.

By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well developed movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and Sufi practices. Sufism was organized in an institution around the hospice or Kanqah controlled by a

teaching master known as sheikh, pir or murshid.He enrolled disciples and appointed a successor. He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between inmates as well as between laypersons and the master.

Silsilas

Silsila literally meaning a chain signifies a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammed.Sufi silsilas began to appear in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth century.

Dargah

Dargah is a Persian term. Its meaning is tomb-shrine. When the sheikh died, his tomb shrine became the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary. It was believed that, after death the soul of sheikh get united with the soul of Allah. People sought their blessings to attain material and spiritual benefits. Thus evolved the cult of the sheikh revered as wali.

Ba-sharia and Be-sharia sufis

Ba- sharaia were those Sufis who adhere with the Shariat and Be-sharia Sufis were those who ignored shariat.

The Chishtis in the Subcontinent

Life in the Chishti khanqah

The khanqah was the centre of social life. It comprised several small rooms and a big hall where inmates and visitors lived and prayed. The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where he met visitors in the morning and evening. There was an open kitchen (langar).From morning till evening people from all walks of life, came to seek the blessings from the Shaikh in various matters.Other visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir
Khusru and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani and all of them wrote about the Shaikh.

The practices that were adopted by the Chishtis in their kanqah

 Bowing before the Shaikh

 Offering water to visitors

 Shaving the heads of initiates

 Yogic exercises

Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed his disciple to set up hospices in various parts of the sub continent. In this way they came in touch with the people which led to the popularization of chishti practices, teachings and also the fame of Shaikh.

Chishti devotionalism: Ziyarat and qawwali

Pilgrimage called Ziyarat tombs of Sufi saints is prevalent all over the Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking the Sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat).For more than seven centuries people from different walks of life expressed their devotion at the dargahs of the five great Chishti saints.The use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy is also part of ziyarat.The Sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His presence through sama or performance of mystical music known as qawwali.

Dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin

 The most popular dargah is that of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).The dargah became so popular because of the following reasons.

 The austerity and piety of the Shaik, greatness of his spiritual successors and the patronage of royal visitors.

 Location of Ajmer was another factor for its popularity. As it was located on the trade route connecting Delhi and Gujarat, it attracted number of travellers.

 Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first Sultan to visit the dargah.

 Akbar, the Mughal emperor visited dargah at Ajmer fourteen times in his life and these visits were aimed at seeking blessings for new conquests, fulfilling his of vows and to get sons.

 Many of his wishes were soon fulfilled and thus as an offering:

 He gave generous gifts on each visit

 He offered a huge cauldron to facilitate cooking for pilgrims.

 He even got a mosque constructed within the dargah.




Languages and communication

 The Chishtis composed their poems in several languages. The Chishtis used Hindavi or Persian language.

Sufis such as Baba Farid composed poetry in local language. Some Sufis composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory.

 Sufi poetry was composed in the Dakhani language around the Bijapur and Karnataka region. Women while performing household chores like grinding grain and spinning sang these poems.

 Other poems were in the form of lurinama(lullabies) or wedding songs (shadinama).The Sufis of this region
 were inspired by the kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur.

Sufis and the state.

 The chishti tradition was austere but it did not isolate political power. The Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites. The sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for
hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).

 The chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind and used for their immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities such as sama.The moral high status of the Sufis attracted people from all walks of life.

 The kings wished to secure their support. Kings simply did not need to show their association with Sufis and also required legitimating for them. When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, Sufis resisted the insistence of the ulama on imposing shari’a as state law because they anticipated opposition from their subjects.

 The sultans also came to depend on the sufis to interpret the Sahri’a.It was believed that Auliya could intercede with god to improve the material and spiritual conditions of the people. As a result, kings got the shrines of the Sufis near built near their tombs.

 There were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis.To assert their authority both expected certain rituals performed like kissing of the feet etc.

New devotional paths: Dialogue and Dissent

in North India 

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Kabir was one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint.

Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct traditions.

Sources to reconstruct the life of Kabir

The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and in Uttar Pradesh. The Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib. All these compilations were made after the death of Kabir.Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects and sometimes with special language of nirguna poets (the sant bhasha) and others known as ulatbansi (upside-down sayings)

Teachings of Kabir

Kabir tried to describe the Ultimate Reality including Islam. According to him the Ultimate Reality was Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used certain Vedic terms such as Brahman and Atman. He also used some yogic traditional terms such as shabda(sound)  shunya(emptiness) Some poems of Kabir expressed conflicting and diverse ideas. Some poems attacked Hindu polytheism and idol worship and others use
sufi concept of zikr and ishq(love) to express the Hindu practice of nam-simaran (remembrance of God’s name).

Historians have tried to analyse the language, style and content of these poems. Debates about whether Kabir was a Hindu or a Muslim by birth are well reflected in hagiographies. Hagiographies within the Vaishnava tradition suggest that he was born a Hindu, Kabirdas but brought up by a poor Muslim community of weavers. They also
suggest that he was initiated into bhakti by a guru, Ramananda. The poems of Kabir used words guru and satguru but do not mention the name of any specific guru.Historians pointed out that it is very difficult to establish that Ramananda and Kabir were contemporaries.

Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word

Baba Guru Nanak was born in a village called Nankana Sahib near Ravi in Punjab in 1469.He trained to be an accountant and studied Persian.He was married at a young age but he spent most of his time among sufis and bhaktas.He also travelled widely.

Teachings of Guru Nanak

His teachings are well reflected in his hymns. These hymns suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna bhakti.He
rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship and the scriptures of Hindus and Muslims.

 According to him, the Absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or form. He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by remembering the Divine Name.

 He expressed his ideas through hymns called “shabad” in Punjabi, the language of the region and sang with different ragas.

 He organized his followers into a community. He set up rules for congregational worship (sangat).He
 appointed one of his disciples, Angad, to succeed him as the preceptor (guru).Guru Nanak did not want to establish a new religion.

 After his death, his followers consolidated their own practices to form a distinct community.

 The fifth guru, Guru Arjun compiled Guru Nanak”s hymns along with those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. These hymns called “gurbani” are composed in various languages.

 The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru; Guru Tegh Bahadur.This scripture was called the Guru Grantha Sahib. Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth (army of the pure).He also defined its five symbols:

 Uncut hair, a dagger, a pair of shorts, a comb and a steel bangle. It was under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh that the community became a socio-religious and military force.

Mirabai,the devotee princess

 Mirabai was the best known woman poet within the bhakti tradition. She was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar.She was married to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar against her wishes. She defied her
husband and not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother.

 She recognized Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu as her lover. Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escaped and lived as wandering singer composing songs with intense expressions of emotion.


Her most famous preceptor was Raidas; a leather worker. It shows her defiance of the norms of caste society.

 She had donned the white robes of a window or the saffron robe of the renouncer.Although she did not attract a sect or group of followers, she has been recognized as a source of inspiration for centuries.

 We get information about her from the bhajans attributed to her.

Reconstructing histories of religious traditions

 Historians used a variety of sources to reconstruct histories of religious traditions. These include stupas, monasteries, and temples.

 Historians also draw on textual sources including devotional literature and hagiographies. These sources enable historians to understand certain religious beliefs and practices.

 They range from the simple direct language of the vachanas of Basavanna to the ornate language of the farman of the Mughal emperors.

 Understanding each type of text requires different skills. Historians have to acquire familiarity with several languages and to be aware of the subtle variations in style that characterize each type.

Through the Eyes of Travellers MCQ

 

Through the Eyes of Travellers Class 12 MCQs Questions with Answers

Question 1.
Which of these French travellers came to during 17th century?
(a) Al-Biruni
(b) Ibn-Battuta
(c) Abul Fail
(d) Fra ncois Bernier

Answer

Question 2.
Who among the following belonged to Morocco?
(a) Ibn Battuta
(b) Al-Biruni
(c) Francois Bernier
(d) Abdul Samarandi
Answer: 

Question 3.
Who Wrote ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’?
(a) Callin Mcenzie
(b) Al-Biruni
(c) Abdul Samad Lahori
(d) lbn-Battuta

Answer

Question 4.
Islamic Law is known as ________
(a) Shariya
(b) Samr
(c) Ulema
(d) All of these

Answer

Answer: 

Question 5.
Ibn Battuta remained in India for ________
years.
(a) 12
(b) 14
(e) 16
(d) 18

Answer

Question 6.
Which of the following cities, according to Ibn-Battut a, was the largest?
(a) Surat
(b) Delhi
(c) Daulatabad
(d) Agra

Answer

Question 7.
Who wrote the book, “Travells In The Mughal Empire”?
(a) Francois Bernier
(b) John Marshall
(c) Callin Mcenzie
(d) James Princep

Answer

Question 8.
Which among the following was the book written by Al-Biruni?
(a) Rihla
(b) Kitab-ul-Hind
(c) Discovery of India
(d) Arthashastra

Answer

Question 9.
Choose the correct option:
Who founded Delhi as a city full of exciting opportunities?
(a) Ibn-Battuta
(b) Al-Biruni
(c) Francois Bernier
(d) Karl Marx

Answer

Question 10.
Choose the correct option:
(a) Ibn-Battuta travelled extensively in China.
(b) Al-Biruni found the Indian cities quite populated.
(c) Al-Biruni was greatly influenced by the Indian postal system.
(d) According to Ibn-Battuta. crown ownership of land was quite disasterous for farmers.

Answer

Question 11.
Consider the following statements.
1. Montesquieu used Bernier’s accounts to develop his idea of oriental despotism.

2. Bernier gave a detailed report on rural society.

3. According to Bernier, crown ownership of land was good for peasants.

4. Bernier onsidered Indian King was the king of beggars.

5. Which of the given statement is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4
(b) 1, 2, 3
(c) 1, 2, 4
(d) 2, 3, 4

Answer

Consider the following:

6. Al-Birunii. Rihla2. Ibn-Battutaii. Kitab-ul-Hind3. Francois Bernieriii. Travels in Mughal Empire

Correctly match them.
(a) 1 – (ii), 2 – (i), 3 – (iii)
(b) 1 – (i), 2 – (ii), 3 – (iii)
(c) I – (iii), 2 – (i), 3 – (iii)
(ci) 1 – (ii), 2 – (iii), 3 – (i)

Answer

6. Who belongs to Uzbekistan?

a.Huen Tsang

b.Ibn Batuta

c.Al Beruni

d.Francois Bernier

7. How many years did Ibn Btuta spend in India ?

a.15

b.12

c.16

d.22

8. What is the main factor on which travellers compiled their accounts?

a.Architecture

b.All of the above

c.Religious Issues

d.Affairs of Court

9. The travelogue of Abdur Razzaq was written in___

a.1440s

b.1560s

c.1460s

d.1540s

10. The European traveller who visited India and China was ________

a.Marco Polo

b.Francois Bernier

c.Antonio Monserrate

d.Peter Mundy

11. Indicate which of the following statements is NOT correct.

a. Al-Beruni came to India in the eleventh century from Uzbekistan

b. Ibn Batuta came to India in the fourteenth century from Morocco

c.Abdur Razzaq came to India in the fifteenth century from Herat.

d. Francois Bernier came to India in the seventeenth century from Portugal

12. Who was Jean Baptiste Tavernier ?

a.Jeweller

b.Doctor

c.Poet

d.Writer

13. Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi belongs to which place ?

a.Kabul

b.Herat

c.Qandhar

d.Mes Aynak

14.  Who wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’?

a.Jean Baptiste Tavernier

b.None of these

c.Francois Bernier

15. Who are Ulama ?

a.Devotees of Buddha

b.Muslim sufi saints

c.Devotess of Vishnu

d.Scholars of Islamic studies

16. Who took Al Beruni to Ghazni ?

a.Sultan Mahmud

b.Shah Shuja

c.Nadir Shah

d.Ahmed Shah Abdali

17. Who wrote the poem The Paan?

a.Ibu Batuta

b.None of these

c.Bernier

d.Al Beruni

18. In which century important descriptions of Vijayanagar were given ?

a.15th

b.13th

c.14th

d.16th

19. Choose the correct option:

a.According to Ibu-Batuta, crown ownership of land was quite disasterous for farmers

b.Al-Biruni found the Indian cities quite populated.

c. Al-Biruni was greatly influenced by the Indian postal system.

d. Ibn-Batuta travelled extensively in China.

20. Who wrote Rihla?

a.Callin Mckenzie

b.Ibu Batuta

c.John Marshall

d.Francois Bernier

21. How many gates were there in Delhi ?

a.20

b.26

c.32

d.28

22. Who out of the following arrived in India in the 17th century?

a.Francois Bernier

b.Antonio Monserrate

c.Marco Polo

d.Ibu Battuta

23. Tarabaad is _____?

a.Is a market place for musical instruments

b.Is a market place for male and female singers

c.Is the market place for bangles
d.Is a market place for clothes

24.  After how many years did Ibn Batuta return home ?

a.30

b.32

c.25

d.27
 

25. Which of the following travellers came to India during the 17th century?

(a) Marco Polo
(b) Antonio Monserrate
(c) Ibn Battuta
(d) Francois Bernier

26. Who translated several Sanskrit works including Patanjali’s work on grammar into Arabic?

(a) Mahmud Wali Balkhi
(b) Al-Biruni
(c) Marco Polo
(d) lbn Battuta

27. Which of the following was not one of the barriers as discussed by Al-Biruni?

(a) Language
(b) Slavery in the eastern societies
(c) Difference in religious beliefs and practices
(d) Self-absorption and the resulting ignorance of the local population

28. Choose the correct option:

(a) Ibn-Battuta travelled extensively in China.
(b) Al-Biruni found the Indian cities quite populated.
(c) Al-Biruni was greatly influenced by the Indian postal system.
(d) According to Bernier, crown ownership of land was quite disasterous for farmers.

Through the Eyes of Travellers

Theme 5 .Through the Eyes of Travellers
Perceptions of Society
(C. 10th to 17th Century)

The accounts of the travellers provide us with some aspects of social life of the people. This chapter discusses how these travel accounts enriched our understanding of the past. The theme focused on the accounts of three men: Al-Beruni, Ibn Batuta and Francois Bernier.

Travel Accounts and reconstruction of Indian history from 10th to 17th century.

 The accounts of the foreign travellers are helpful in reconstructing the history of India from 10th To 17th century.

 Most of the travellers came from vastly different social and cultural environment. Hence they were more attentive to everyday activities and practices. These were taken for granted by indigenous writers.

 Their difference in perspective makes their accounts interesting.

 Their accounts deals with affairs of the court, religious issues, architectural features and monuments

Al-Biruni

 Al-Biruni was born in 973, in Khwarizm (present day Uzbekistan).

 He was a learnt man and well versed in several languages such as Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit.

 He has learnt the Arabic translation of Greeks philosophers like Plato.

 Mahamud Gazni invaded Khwarizm in 1017 and brought Al-Biruni with him to Gazni.

 When the Punjab became a part of the Ghaznavid Empire, Al-Beruni who also followed Gazni and settled there. Where he got a chance to learn Indian texts on Indian religion and philosophy.

 He came into contact with local Sanskrit scholars.

Kitab-ul-Hind

 The accounts of Al-Beruni came to be called Kitab-ul-Hind or Tahkik-e-Hind.

 The Kitab-ul-Hind was written in Arabic language and was divided into 80 chapters.

 It dealt with subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.

 Al-Beruni has adopted a mathematical approach. He begins each chapter with a question followed up with a description and comparison of cultures.

 Scholars viewed this method is result of his mathematical orientation.


Making Sense of an alien world: Alberuni and the Sanskritic tradition.

The barriers that Al-Beruni observed in understanding the Indian society

 Al-Beruni discussed several barriers that obstructed the understanding of Indian society.

 The first barrier was the language .To him. Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian and the ideas and concepts could not be easily translated from one language to another.

 The second barrier was that Al-Beruni identified was the difference in religious beliefs and practices.

 The third barrier was the self observation and consequent insularity of the local population. He depended mainly on the works of Brahmansa and often quoted from the Vedas,the Puranas,the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, and the Manusmriti.

Al-Beruni’s description of the caste system

 Al-Beruni tried to explain the caste system by comparing it with other societies.

 He said that in ancient Persia, there were four social categories: Knights and princes, monks, fire-priests and lawyers, physicians, astronomers and other scientists.

 He tried to understand that social divisions were not unique to india.

 He pointed out that within Islam all men were considered equal and difference was based on only the observance of piety.

 He described about the four varnas such as Brhamana, Kshatriya,Vaishya and Shudra.

 But he did not accept the Brahmanical notion of pollution.

 He said that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity.

 The sun cleanses the air, and the salt in the sea prevents the water from becoming polluted.

 According to him, the notion of pollution which was intrinsic to caste system was against the laws of nature.

 Al-Beruni’s description of the caste system was deeply influenced by his familiarity with
normative Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules governing the system from the point of view of the Brahmanas.

Ibn Battuta(An early globe-trotter)

 Ibn Battuta was an African traveller who came from Morocco.

 He was born in Tangier. He learnt literature and other scholarly works at his young age.

 He considered that knowledge gained through travels is more important source than books.

 He loved travelling, and went far off places, exploring new worlds and peoples.

 Before his visit to India ,he had made pilgrimage to Mecca and travelled extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa.

Ibn Battuta’s visit to India. (Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar)

 He set off his travel to India in 1332-33 and reached Sind in 1333.

 He was able to get the reputation of the sultan of Delhi; Muhammed bin Tughlaq.

 The sultan was impressed by the scholarship of Ibn Battuta and appointed him as the qazi or judge of Delhi.

 He remained judge for many years. The sultan appointed him as his ambassador to China.

 During his journey to China, he also visited Malabar Coast, Maldives, Bengal, Assam and Sumatra.

Rihla

 Ibn Battuta’s book of travels called Rihla was written in Arabic provides the social and cultural life in the subcontinent in the 14th century.

 He carefully recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs, values etc.

The coconut and the paan

 The best example of Ibn Battuta’s strategies of representation are clear in the ways in which he described the coconut and the paan ,two kinds of plant produce that were completely unfamiliar to his audience.

Ibn Battuta and Indian cities

 Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities for those who are able and have resources and skills.

 The cities were densely populated and prosperous. Cities were disrupted during wars invasions.

 His account said that streets in many cities were crowded and bright and colourful markets were with full of many varieties of goods.

 He described Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India.

 Bazaars were not only places of economic transaction but also the hub of social and cultural activities.

 Many bazaars had mosque and temple with spaces for public performances by dancers and singers.

 Ibn Battuta noted that the cities obtained its wealth from villages.

 This was because of the agricultural production with two crops a year.

 He says that there was a great demand for Indian textiles like cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin.

 He further says that certain varieties of fine muslin were so expensive that could be worn only by the nobles and the very rich.

A unique system of communication

 Almost all trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses.

 Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system.

 The Postal system was of two kinds.

 One was called uluq (horse post) and the other was dawa (foot post)

 This system enabled merchants to send information, remit credit across long distances and to dispatch goods required at short notice.

Francois Bernier(A doctor with a difference)

 Francois Bernier was French by birth and doctor by profession.

 He was a political philosopher and historian.

 He came to the Mughal Empire in search of opportunities.

 He lived in India for twelve years from 1656 to 1668.

 He was a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan and intellectual
and scientist with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.

 Bernier travelled to different parts of the country and wrote accounts based on his own observations and compared the social conditions in India with the situations in Europe.

 He dedicated his works to Louis XIV, the king of France.

 His works were published in France in 1670-71 and translated into English, Dutch, German and Italian. Later his account was reprinted number of times.

Travels in the Mughal Empire(Bernier and the “degenerate” East)

 Bernier’s Travels in the Mughal Empire provides a detailed observations and critical insights.

 He constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe.

 He emphasized the superiority of the European society.

The question of landownership

 According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in the Indian society.

 He had a firm belief in the virtues of private property.

 Crown ownership of land was harmful for both state and its people.

 He thought that the Mughal Emperor owned all land and distributed it among the nobles.

 He argued that lands under the crown ownership could not be passed on to their children.

 So they were averse to any long-term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production.

 The absence of private property prevented the emergence of the class of ‘improving’ landlords as it was in Western Europe to maintain and improve the land.

 It had ruined the agriculture and oppressed the peasants and the living standards of all sections in the society declined except the ruling aristocracy.


Bernier’s description on the social condition of India

 Bernier described Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated masses of a very rich and powerful ruling class.

 There was a wide gape between the poorest of poor and richest of the rich. He says “There is no middle state in India.”

Bernier’s description on the Mughal Emperor and his subjects.

 Bernier described the Mughal Empire as the king of “beggars and barbarians”.

 Its cities and towns were ruined and contaminated with “ill air” and its fields “overspread with bushes “and full of “pestilential marishes”.

 He attributed all these problems to the crown ownership of land.

 Bernier says that there was the practice of crown ownership of land and no private ownership of land or private property.

 But none of the Mughal official documents show that the state was the sole owner of land.

 According to the official chronicler of Akbar’s reign Abul Fazl, the Mughal Emperor collected only the remunerations from the people for the protection given by the state and no rent was collected.

 Bernier regarded the remuneration as land revenue since it was very high sometimes.

The idea of Oriental despotism

 Bernier’s descriptions of landownership influenced western theorists from the 18th century onwards.

 For instance, the French philosopher Montesquieu used Bernier’s account and developed the idea of Oriental despotism.

 According to this idea in Asia (the Orient or the East) the kings enjoyed absolute authority over his subjects and owned all lands.

 There was no private property. All people except King and nobles sruggled for survival.

The Concept of Asiatic mode of production

 Karl Marx further developed the idea of Oriental despotism as Asiatic mode of production.

 Marx observes that before colonialism, surplus production was appropriated by the state.

 This led to the emergence of a society that was composed of a large number of autonomous and egalitarian village communities.

 The imperial court respected these villages as long as the flow of surplus was continued. Marx regarded this as a stagnant system




A more complex social reality

 Bernier’s descriptions occasionally hint at a more complex social reality.

 Artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures.

 All profits were appropriated by the state. Manufactures were everywhere declining.

 At the same time he agreed that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver.

 He also mentioned that there existed a prosperous merchant community engaging in long distance trade.

Mughal cities

 During the 17th century about 15 percent of the population lived in towns.

 Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns”, which were dependent upon imperial patronage.

 There were all kinds of towns: manufacturing towns, trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns etc.

 The existence of towns indicates the prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes.

 Merchants had a strong community or kin ties and were organized into their own caste –cum- occupational groups.

 In western India these groups were called Mahajans,and their chief,the sheth.

 In urban centres such as Ahmedabad the chief of the merchant community who was called nagarsheth collectively represented the Mahajans.

Urban professional classes

 Urban groups included professional groups such as physicians (hakin or vaid), teachers(pundit or mulla ), lawyers(wakil), painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc.

 While some depended on imperial patronage , many made their living by serving other patrons while still others served ordinary people in crowded markets and bazaars

Use of Slaves

 Slaves were openly sold in markets. Like any other commodity, slaves were exchanged as gifts.

 When Ibn Battuta reached Sind he purchased “horses, camels and slaves” as gifts for sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

 There was considerable differentiation among slaves.

 Some female slaves in the service of the Sultan were experts in music and dance.

 Female slaves were also used to keep a watch on his nobles by the sultan.

 Slaves were used for domestic labour.Ibn Battuta noted that men and women slaves carried palanquins or dola.

 The price of slaves particularly female slaves required for domestic labour, was very low.

The Practice of Sati

 Bernier has provided a detailed description of sati in his account.

 He mentioned that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to
death.

 He also noticed the child satin which a twelve year old young widow sacrificed.

Women Labourers

 Women labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural production.

 Women from merchant families participated in commercial activities.

 Therefore it seems unlikely that women were confined to the private spaces of their
homes. 

Travelers who wrote detailed accounts regarding Indian social customs and religious practices

 Jesuit Roberto Nobili- He translated Indian texts into European languages

 Duarte Barbosa- He was a Portuguese traveler .He wrote a detailed account of trade and

society in south India

 Jean-BaptisteTavernier- He was the famous French jeweller who visited India six times.

He was particularly fascinated with the trading conditions in India, and compared India to Iran and the Ottoman Empire.

 Italian doctor Manucci- He wrote detailed accounts regarding Indian social customs and religious practices and settled in India.

 Pelsaert-He visited the subcontinent during the 17th century. He was shocked to see the widespread poverty of the people.

 Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi.He visited south India in the 1440s.and saw India as a land of wonder.

Three Orders

The three orders of the European society between the ninth and and sixteenth centuries were: Christian priests, landowning nobles and peasants. 

The changing relationships between these three groups was an important factor in shaping European history for several centuries.

Sources to understand Medieval European society

1.There is a lot of material in the form of documents,details of landownership, prices and legal cases. Churches yu had kept records of births ,marriages and deaths.

 .The inscriptions in churches give information about traders' associations,and songs and stories give a sense of festivals and community activities. All these can be used to understand economic and
social life.

2.Marc Bloch and his ideas about European feudalism

Marc Bloch(1886-1944) was one of the earliest scholars of France who worked on the concept of feudalism. He argued
that history is not all about political history but also includes international relations and lives of great people. He stressed on the importance of geography in determining human history and the requirement to realise the collective activities or approaches of groups of people.

His book Feudal Society talks about the European society between 900 and 1300 A.D especially of France. It had significant detailed social relations and hierarchies and land related affairs and cultural achievements of that period.

 
Condition of Europe on the eve of rising feudalism. There were some socio-political changes that occurred in Europe between the ninth and and sixteenth centuries.

After the decline of the Roman Empire, several Germanic groups of people of eastern and central Europe captured
areas of Italy,Spain and France. Due to the absence of a single political power, there were regular military clashes in order to gather resources to continue hold on own land. Social institution was therefore revolved around the control of land.

Christianity was the religion of land as it was spread in almost whole Europe. The church was not only a religious institution but also a political power. The church was a major land holder in Europe.

Meaning of feudalism

The term 'feudalism' is derived from a German word 'feud' which means 'a
piece of land'.It refers to the kind of society that developed in Medieval France and later in England and Italy. Feudalism was a system that centred around the principles of land related matters. Historians used the term feudalism to describe the economic , legal,political and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era.

Features of feudalism in Europe

The roots of feudalism can be traced back to the practices that existed in the Roman Empire. Feudalism became an established way of life during the era of French king Charlemagne. It was said to be emerged later and spread in whole Europe later.

Feudalism refers to a kind of an agricultural production which was based on the relationship between the lords and
peasants. The peasants cultivated their own land and worked on the lands of the lords also. In lieu of labour service , peasants received military protection from the lord. The lords also decided the judicial matters of the peasants.Therefore ,that lord was all in all proprietors of lands and peasant's fortunes. Thus ,besides economic aspects, feudalism also began to cover the political and social aspects of life.


History of the name france

There was a province of Roman Empire named ''Gaul' which was had extensive
coastlines,mountain ranges,long rivers,forests and large plain area suited to agriculture. A Germanic tribe named ''the Franks 'gave their name to Gaul and it later came to be known as France. By the sixth century this region was a kingdom under the rule of Christian Frankish or French got strengthened when Charlemagne was given the title of 'Holy Roman Emperor' by
the pope around 800 AD.

The Three Orders

The French priests were of the view that people were part of the one of three 'orders 'according to their occupation. A bishop quoted that,'”Here below some pray,others fight,other still work” .So the three orders of
society were generally the clergy,the nobility and the peasantry.

The First Order:The Clergy

The Christians of Europe were directed by bishops and clerics of church. They made the first order of the feudal society. Above those bishops and clerics was the head of western church,the Pope,who lived in Rome. The Catholic church was the most dominant body which did not depend on the king. The church had its own laws, own land granted by the king collected taxes of own. Almost all villages had church,where people gathered on Sunday pray and
listened to the sermons of the priests. Men who became priest could not marry.

 Serfs, the physically challenged and
women could not became a priest. The Bishops were nobles in religious field. They owned lands like lords, had vast estates and lived in grand palaces.

The church collected one tenth of share from peasants' produce every year called the'tithe'.The church also got money
in the form of donations by the rich for own and their relatives' welfare in the afterlife. 

Several rites and rituals of feudal nobles were copied by church to increase its influence. The act of knelling while praying, with hands clasped and head bowed was identical to knights' act to take vow for their lord. The term 'lord' for God was also a debt from feudal customs.

Monks and Monasteries

There were devout Christians in feudal society known as monks. They opted to live isolated in contrast to the clergy
who lived in towns and villages. They lived in religious communities called abbeys or monasteries away from human settlements. Monks vowed to stay in the abbey for the rest of their life. They spent their time in worship,study and manual labour like farming. Their life was different from priesthood and was quiet open to both men and women and women became nuns. Most of the abbeys were single -sex communities. There were separate abbeys for men and
women. Like priests,monks and nuns did not marry. Two well known monasteries were one established by St. Benedict in Italy in 529 and another of Cluny in Burgundy in 910.


Relation between the Church and Society


Christianity entered Europe and influenced most of the people. But they did not forget old beliefs in magic and folk traditions. Christmas and Easter became important dates from the fourth century. They replaced old pre-Roman festival as which were based on solar calender. The Easter day marked the crucifixion of Christ and his rebirth from the dead and it was celebrates on replaced date of old festival based on lunar calender. On coming of spring ,people used to travel around their village lands on that day. Holiday or holidays were welcomed by over worked peasants as free
days ,They usually spent more time in fun and feasting rather than prayer.

The Second Order:The Nobility

The nobility possessed a central role in the social processes. They had control over lands,which was the result of old custom known as 'vassalage'.The nobles of kings were big land holders and they used to be vassal of the king whereas the peasants were vassals to the land owners. In France the rulers were linked to 'vassalage', similarly the Franks of Gaul also followed the same tradition. In that tradition a noble accepted the king his seigneur or lord in all matters and king had to give a mutual assurance that he would protect the vassals. Under that link both seigneur and the noble had to make vows with the Bible in the church. The vassal received a written charter or a staff or even a clod of earth as
symbol of land granted by his lord. The nobles enjoyed several privileges. They had judicial powers and even right to issue coins. They also had power to raise their army known as feudal levies. A noble was lord of each and every person settled on his land. He possessed huge tracts of land which included his residences ,his personal fields,pastures and the fields of peasant-tenants. The house of noble was known as manor. The peasants cultivated their fields also,worked as cultivators on his fields and as the foot soldiers in time of military need.

The Manorial Estate

A lord house was known as manor-house in feudal society. He would control peasant's villages in the manorial estates either in small number containing few dozen of houses or in large number consisting of around fifty to sixty houses of peasants. The manorial estates were self sufficient economic centres,where each and every requirement of daily life was fulfilled in the estate. The grains were grown in the fields,blacksmiths and carpenters maintained the lords equipments and refurnished the ornaments,whereas stone masons managed their building. The women prepared fabrics and children worked in lord's wine-presses. The estates consisted of woodlands and forests where the lord did hunting.
The estates also contained pastures. The church was part of estate and the castle was there for defence,where knights lived. In England ,the castles were developed as centres of administration and military strength under the feudal
system.

Knights: A Distinctive Group

There were regular localised wars in Europe. The insufficient amateur peasant soldiers and lack of good cavalry
had created problems. This led to the evolution of new section of people in society known as Knight. They were under
the lord,who were subordinates of the king. The knights paid his lord customary fees and pledged to fight for him in war. The lords granted a piece of land called fief,for knights in lieu of their services as their protectorate. The fief of knight could be hereditary and was of any size from 1000 to 2000 acres or more. A knight's fief consisted of a house for him and his family,church settlements of dependent together with water mill and wine press. The peasants cultivated the land of the fief. In exchange , the knight paid his lord a regular fee and promised to fight for him in war. A knight
could serve more than one lord but remained loyal to his own lord.

The Third Order:Peasants,Free and Unfree

The third order consisted of vast majority of people which were mainly cultivators. The cultivators had two categories: free peasants and serfs. The free peasants were those who had own lands but worked as tenants of the land. They had to give military service for least forty days in a year. They had to work on lord's fields for three days generally in a week in the form of labour-rent. Together with this they had to provide unpaid services for works like

digging ditches,gathering firewood, building fence and maintaining roads and buildings. Women and children had to do
several tasks together with work on fields like spinning thread,weaving cloth,making candles and preparing wine from grapes.

 The free peasants had to pay a tax 'taille' to king from which clergy and nobles were exempted. The serfs tilled the land of lord. Most part of the produce was submitted to the lord. They had to work on the lands of lord without wages. They were not allowed to leave the estate without prior permission from the lord. The lord claimed several
monopolies at the cost of his serfs . Serfs could use only lord's flour mill,his oven to bake their bread and his wine-presses to distil wine and beer. The lord decide whom a serf should marry or might give the blessing to the serf's choice but on a payment of a free.

England the land 'Angles'

The Angles and Saxons came from central Europe and got settled in England during sixth century. The name of the country England is a modification of 'Angle-land' as England was inhabited by Angles.

Factors Affecting social and Economic Relations.

There were several processes which were affecting the social and economic relations.

The Environment:

Between fifth and tenth centuries, Europe had undergone an extreme cold climatic change. This shortened growing season for crops and reduced agricultural production. By the eleventh century,Europe entered a warm phase. Increase in temperature had a deep impact on agriculture. Peasants had a longer growing season and soil could be easily ploughed. This resulted in the expansion of agriculture.

 
Land Use:

Agricultural technology used by peasants initially was primitive. They had to use wooden plough drawn by couple of
oxen,which could only scratch the surface of earth instead of drawing full fertility of soil. So,fields needed to be dug by
hand ,regularly once in four years. Agriculture was therefore very labour demanding. An unproductive method of crop rotation was in use ;in which the land was divided in two halves. In one winter wheat was grown in autumn and other
left fallow and vice versa. Rye was grown in other half. This was a system of destroying fertility of soil and caused frequent famines. Chronic malnutrition occurred and life of the poor became more difficult. The lords were apprehensive to increase their income,as it was difficult to increase output from land. So they forced the peasants to work on his manorial estates more than the legal time.

Technological Changes in the Field of Agriculture:

The eleventh century saw several changes in the field of agriculture.
* The heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards replaced old wooden equipments. These ploughs dug much
deeper and mould -boards turned soil suitable which resulted in better use of nutrients from the soil.

* The shoulder-harness replaced neck-harness of animals that allowed animals to wield great power. Use of iron horseshoes prevented foot decay of horses.

* There was increased use of wind and water energy for agriculture. All over Europe wind and water power mills were established for the purpose of grinding corn and pressing grapes .

 
* There was introduction of three field system for land use in place of older two field system. In that,a peasant could use two out of three fields by sowing one crop in autumn and another crop in spring a year and half late.

They could grow wheat or rye in autumn in one field then in second field they could grow peas,beans and lentils during spring and could grow oats and barley for horses also. The third field was left fallow and by that they could rotate the use of all three fields every year.

 With the improvement in agricultural technology there was instant enhancement in food produced from every unit of land. The greater use of plants like peas and beans meant increase in protein diet of Europeans and better source of fodder for animals. Now cultivator could produce more food from small land. The average
holding of peasant's farm shrank from 100 acres to 20 or 30 acres. Now small holdings reduced the requirement of labour and could be efficiently cultivated which gave time to peasants for other creative
activities.

* During the eleventh century the personal bonds base of feudalism weakened. The lords asked for rents in cash instead of kind,also peasants found it easy to sell their crops to traders. The increased use of money began to influence prices,which became higher in times of poor harvest.

A Fourth Order? New towns and Towns people :
• The advent of new agricultural technology resulted in growth of agriculture which was accompanied by progress in three related areas: population,trade and towns.

• The population of Europe rose from 42 million in 1000 to 62 million around 1200 and 73 million in 1300.Due to better food the lifespan increased. An average European could expect to live 10 years longer in the 13th century than 8th century.

* The growth of population resulted into development of towns in the Roman Empire. Peasant needed a place to
sell their surplus produce and buy tools and cloth. This led to the increase in holding regular fairs and small townships. These townships gradually developed into town with features like town square,a church, streets where merchants built shops and homes, an office where administrators of city could meet. The towns developed along large castles,bishops' estates or large churches.

• Instead of services,people paid taxes to lords who were the owner of the land on which the town stood. Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom for young people of peasantry.

• 'Town air makes free' was a saying popular in medieval Europe. Many serfs escaped from their masters and
hid themselves in towns. If they successfully completed one year and a day without being discovered by their
masters ,they could become freemen.

• There was a large number of shopkeepers and merchants,later there was a need of skilled individuals like lawyers and bankers. The bigger towns had population of around 30,000 which might form the fourth order.

• Guilds were the basis of economic organisation in the medieval Europe . Crafter industry was organised into guild. These guilds controlled the quality,price and the sale of the goods. The guild- hall was part of every town where heads of all guilds met. Due to the expansion of trade and commerce also the town merchants became wealthy and powerful and completed with power of the nobility.

Cathedral -towns
:

The large churches were called cathedrals. By 12th century onwards, cathedrals were being built in France. The cathedrals belonged to monasteries. Different people contributed to their construction with their own labour, material or money. A cathedral was made of stone and took several years to complete. The area around the cathedrals became more populated and they became centres of pilgrimage. Small towns developed around them. Cathedrals were designed in a way that voice of the priest could reach all people assembled in the hall. Singing sound of monks and the chiming bells reached greater distance as a call for prayer. Stained glass was used for windows of the cathedrals. These glasses,
during day time ,made the cathedrals radiant for the people who were inside and during the nights ,the light of the candles made them visible for the people outside. The stained glass narrated the stories in the Bible through pictures. So that illiterates could understand those stories.

The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century:

➢ By the early fourteenth century,Europe's economic expansion slowed down.
➢ In 13th century the warm summers of the previous years had given way to bitterly cold summers.
➢ Seasons for growing crops were reduced by a month.
➢ Storms and oceanic flooding destroyed many farmlands that reduced the income in taxes for govts.
➢ Population growth caused shortage of resources and the immediate result was famine.
➢ Trade was hit by a severe shortage of metal money because of the short fall in the output of silver mines in
Austria and Serbia.
➢ The ships came with rats carrying the deadly bubonic plague infection(Black death).
➢ This catastrophe ,combined with the economic crisis, caused immense social disorder.
➢ Serious imbalances were created between agriculture and manufacture.

Social Unrest:
The income of lords was declining rapidly because of fall prices of agriculture products and rise in wages of labourers. In desperation,they tried to give up the money-contracts and revive labour-services. This was fiercely
opposed by all peasants including better-educated and more prosperous one. The peasants revolted in Flanders in
1323,in France in 1358 and in England in 1381.Although the revolts were ruthlessly crushed but one significant thing
was that they occurred with more brutal intensity in the areas which experience economic growth. It was a sign of
peasant's attempt for securing their gains which they had made in previous centuries. The aggression of peasants made it certain that old feudal order would not be reinstalled. Thus the lords were able to crush the rebellions but were not able to reinstitute old feudal privileges.



Political Changes between 15th and 16th century



Development in the political sphere was parallel to the social processes. In the 15th and 16th centuries,emergence of triumphant rulers in Europe was stimulated by the social changes of 13th and 14th centuries as the feudal system weakened. Both the powerful new states and the economic changes that were occurring were significant for Europe.

The historians called these kings' the new monarchs'.The kings like Louis XI in France,Maximilian in Austria,Henry-VII in England and Isabelle and Ferdinand in Spain were absolute monarchs. They started the process of organizing standing armies,a permanent bureaucracy and national taxation and,in Spain and France began to play a role in European expansion overseas.

The monarchs dispensed with the system of feudal levies for their armies and initiated professionally trained infantry equipped with gun and siege artillery directly under their control. The resistance of the nobility collapsed in the face of the military efficiency of the kings.

The centralized power did not establish easily confrontation of aristocracies. The nobility managed a tactical transfer from being opponents to the new regime into loyalists. The king was at the centre of an elaborate courtier society and a network of patron-client relationships. All rulers powerful or weak required the assistance of those who could control power which could be arranged or acquired by way of money. The merchants and bankers acquired an important role because they could solve problem of money for the kings by lending it to them. Therefore,they got easy access to royal court. Kings, thus made way for non-feudal constituents in the state scheme. The later history of France and England was to be shaped by these changes in the power structure.




Key words :

Medieval Era:The term' medieval era' refers to the period in European history between the fifth and the fifteenth centuries.

Abbey : Abbey is derived from the Syriac abba, meaning father. An abbey was governed by an abbot or an abbess.

Monastery :The word 'monastery' is derived from the Greek word 'monos',meaning someone who lives alone.

Doon de mayence:A thirteenth century French poem to be sung recounting adventures of Knights.

The Canterbury Tales:A poem written by Geoffrey Chaucer

Piers Plowman:A poem written by Langland

The Black death: Black death or bubonic plague caused the large scale deaths in Europe. It was brought by the rats that come to Europe ,along with the trading ships.

Fourth Order :The bigger towns had population of around 30,000 .They could be said to have formed a fourth order.